In business, we talk about excellence. But what is the definition of excellence? The US Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award used to be quite popular in the 1980s and 1990s. However, many excellent companies and organisation are now no more interesting at the Award. So, have the pursuit and search of excellence stopped? No, they look for other models or develop their own models with internal and external inputs.
Chinese philosophy in the period of Hundred schools of thought (see below) had introduced several options for an ideal society and provided advices for rulers to build a stronger and prosperous nation. As you may aware, the winner was legalist who advised Qin that used tough and strict law to unite the whole China. However, Qin had a short life in history and was replaced by Han which lasted more than 400 years.
In business, would like to be short lived as Qin?
Philosophy let us know the maximum, even though it may not be achievable in reality. It may be harder for people and businesses under the survival line to think about ideal society or business excellence. However, with the progress of society and economic development, more and more will live above survival line and look for better society and business performance. Along the way, we will need to know our target; even it may be a philosophical one and bench mark against it.
For easy discussion, we only concentrate on 4 major philosophies (Confucianism, Daoism, Legalist and Mohism) in the late Zhou period for business excellence.
If we treat an ideal society as business excellence, then the 4 philosophies will provide the following visions:
Confucianism: A gentleman company. People are courteous, trustworthy, well behaved, respect seniors, follow instructions, honest and seek harmony and compromise with others. Employees want to perform well under rules and regulations and carry out duties with socially acceptable moral and ethical standard. Their aim is to be perfect workers with continuous learning.
Daoism: An action-less, natural company. Let things move in their natural path without intervention. Always focus on the weak, lower and unnoticed event, people, and things. Weak things will turn to strength and will change the bad situation to good.
Employees look for individual and spiritual satisfaction.
Legalist: A law enforcement company. Under rules and regulations, all are equal and receive fair treatment. A strict law is good as human beings are bad in nature and the law can prevent bad and unlawful behaviors. Employees know that they have to perform to be recognized and rewarded.
Mohism: A love for all company. Treat everyone with love and love has no distance regardless of whether they are relatives, friends or even enemy. They are willing to sacrifice life to defend the weak from attack. Employees follow the instructions set by leaders and go all out to spread love without fear.
As a leader you may adopt a combination of the above philosophies or at different stage of organisation development implementing different philosophy principles accordingly.
Further to the vision, in today’s management principles, strategic thinking is the use of systematic and rational methods in planning, problem-solving, and decision-making. However, strategic thinking needs to think out of box and imagine of the impossibilities, possibilities, uncertainties and opportunities. Chinese philosophy can be a source of strategic thinking.
From ideal society as a way to business excellence, we can also envisage the business planning and strategies that the 4 major Chinese philosophies will suggest:
Confucianism: Learning and education. No matter human nature is good or bad, self study, education and training can help a person to improve and upgrade to the highest level, so do the company. Company and employees trust each other in delivering the jobs and achieve a common target.
Daoism: Simplicity and reduction. Emphasis is on individual motivation, satisfaction and enrichment. Company will not influence individual decision. Individual takes their own, easy and simple way to carry out their work. Along the way, employees discard the old and leaned knowledge and see things as simplicity.
Legalist: Performance base. Employees will get rewards for their performance. Regardless of status, as far as one makes contributions to the company, he will be rewarded. Employees are motivated to use all means to achieve their target, including knowing that they may die in service.
Mohism: Universal and equal love. Without thinking one’s ability, in the name of love for all people, employees will perform their duty accordingly. They care very little about themselves but will follow the instruction of their leaders. They are not concern about the reward but are motivated to move forward even if it is an impossible mission.
As a company, you may want your employees to behave like a legalist or even better like a Mohism, never considering reward. However, when we are moving up to the higher economic level, we are searching for self actualisations rather than basic needs.
An organisation or business will need to know what Chinese philosophical strategies to engage so as to achieve excellent result.
Hundred Schools of Thought from wikipedia
The Hundred Schools of Thought (simplified Chinese: 诸子百家; traditional Chinese: 諸子百家; pinyin: zhūzǐ bǎijiā; Wade–Giles: chu-tzu pai-chia; literally "all philosophers hundred schools") were philosophers and schools that flourished from 770 to 221 BC, an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China. Even though this period - known in its earlier part as the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period (春秋戰國時代/春秋战国时代) - in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely. This phenomenon has been called the Contention of a Hundred Schools of Thought (百家爭鳴/百家争鸣; bǎijiā zhēngmíng; pai-chia cheng-ming; "hundred schools contend"). The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the present day in East Asian countries. The intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy. This period ended with the rise of the Qin dynasty and the subsequent purge of dissent.
Confucianism and its derivatives
Main article: Confucianism
Confucianism (儒家; Rújiā; Ju-chia; "School of scholars") is the body of thought that arguably had the most enduring effects on Chinese life. Its written legacy lies in the Confucian Classics, which later became the foundation of traditional society. Confucius (551–479 BC), or Kongzi "Master Kong", looked back to the early days of the Zhou dynasty for an ideal socio-political order. He believed that the only effective system of government necessitated prescribed relationships for each individual: "Let the ruler be a ruler and the subject a subject". Furthermore, he contended that a king must be virtuous in order to rule properly. To Confucius, the functions of government and social stratification were facts of life to be sustained by ethical values; thus his ideal human was the junzi, which is translated as "gentleman" or "superior person".
Mencius (371–289 BC), or Mengzi, formulated his teachings directly in response to Confucius.
The effect of the combined work of Confucius, the codifier and interpreter of a system of relationships based on ethical behavior, and Mencius, the synthesizer and developer of applied Confucianist thought, was to provide traditional Chinese society with a comprehensive framework by which to order virtually every aspect of life.
There were many accretions to the body of Confucian thought, both immediately and over the millennia, from within and without the Confucian school. Interpretations adapted to contemporary society allowed for flexibility within Confucianism, while the fundamental system of modeled behavior from ancient texts formed its philosophical core.
Diametrically opposed to Mencius, in regards to human nature (性), was the interpretation of Xunzi (c. 300–237 BC), another Confucian follower. Xunzi preached that man is not innately good; he asserted that goodness is attainable only through training one's desires and conduct.
Legalism
Main article: Legalism (Chinese philosophy)
The School of Law or Legalism (法家; Fǎjiā; Fa-chia; "School of law") doctrine was formulated by Han Feizi (d. 233 BC) and Li Si (d. 208 BC), who maintained that human nature was incorrigibly selfish; accordingly, the only way to preserve the social order was to impose discipline from above, and to see to a strict enforcement of laws. The Legalists exalted the state above all, seeking its prosperity and martial prowess over the welfare of the common people.
Legalism greatly influenced the philosophical basis for the imperial form of government. During the Han Dynasty, the most practical elements of Confucianism and Legalism were taken to form a sort of synthesis, marking the creation of a new form of government that would remain largely intact until the late 19th century.
Taoism
Main article: Taoism
Philosophical Taoism or Daoism (道家; Dàojiā; Tao-chia; "School of the Way") developed into the second most significant stream of Chinese thought. Its formulation is often attributed to the legendary sage Laozi ("Old Master"), who is said to predate Confucius, and Zhuangzi (369–286 BC). The focus of Taoism is on the individual within the natural realm rather than the individual within society; accordingly, the goal of life for each individual is seeking to adjust oneself and adapting to the rhythm of the natural (and the supernatural) world, to follow the Way (tao) of the universe, and to live in harmony. In many ways the opposite of rigid Confucian morality, Taoism was for many of its adherents a complement to their ordered daily lives. A scholar serving as an official would usually follow Confucian teachings, but at leisure or in retirement might seek harmony with nature as a Taoist recluse.
Mohism
Main article: Mohism
Mohism or Moism (墨家; Mòjiā; Mo-chia; "School of Mo") was developed by followers of Mozi (also referred to as Mo Di; 470–c.391 BC). Though the school did not survive through the Qin Dynasty, Mohism was seen as a major rival of Confucianism in the period of the Hundred Schools of Thought. Its philosophy rested on the idea of universal love: Mozi believed that "everyone is equal before heaven", and that people should seek to imitate heaven by engaging in the practice of collective love. His epistemology can be regarded as primitive materialist empiricism; he believed that human cognition ought to be based on one's perceptions – one's sensory experiences, such as sight and hearing – instead of imagination or internal logic, elements founded on the human capacity for abstraction.
Mozi advocated frugality, condemning the Confucian emphasis on ritual and music, which he denounced as extravagant. He regarded offensive warfare as wasteful and advocated pacifism or at the most, defensive fortification. The achievement of social goals, according to Mozi, necessitated the unity of thought and action. His political philosophy bears a resemblance to divine-rule monarchy: the population ought always to obey its leaders, as its leaders ought always to follow the will of heaven. Mohism might be argued to have elements of meritocracy: Mozi contended that rulers should appoint officials by virtue of their ability instead of their family connections. Although popular faith in Mohism had declined by the end of the Qin Dynasty, its views are said to be strongly echoed in Legalist thought.
School of Yin-yang
The School of Naturalists or Yin-yang (陰陽家/阴阳家; Yīnyángjiā; Yin-yang-chia; "School of Yin-Yang") was a Warring States era philosophy that synthesized the concepts of yin-yang and the Five Elements. Zou Yan is considered the founder of this school. Their theories attempted to explain the universe in terms of basic forces in nature: the complementary agents of yin (dark, cold, female, negative) and yang (light, hot, male, positive) and the Five Elements or Five Phases (water, fire, wood, metal, and earth). In its early days, these theories were most strongly associated with the states of Yan and Qi. In later periods, these epistemological theories came to hold significance in both philosophy and popular belief. This school was absorbed into Taoism's alchemic and magical dimensions as well as into the Chinese medical framework. The earliest surviving recordings of this are in the Ma Wang Dui texts and Huang Di Nei Jing.
Logicians
Main article: School of Names
The School of Names or Logicians (名家; Míngjiā; Ming-chia; "School of names") grew out of Mohism, with a philosophy that focused on definition and logic. It is said to have parallels with that of the Ancient Greek sophists or dialecticians. The most notable Logician was Gongsun Longzi.
Other Schools
The Taishigong Zixu (太史公自序) of Shiji (史記/史记) lists the above six major philosophies within the Hundred Schools of Thought. The Yiwenzhi (藝文志/艺文志) of Hanshu (漢書/汉书) adds four more into the Ten Schools (十家; Shijia).
The School of Agriculture (農家/农家; Nongjia) encouraged farming and agriculture and taught farming and cultivation techniques, as they believed that agricultural development was the way to have enough food for the country. For example, Mencius once criticized Xu Xing (許行) for advocating that rulers should work in the fields with their subjects.
The School of Diplomacy or School of Vertical and Horizontal [Alliances] (縱橫家/纵横家; Zonghengjia) specialized in diplomatic politics; Zhang Yi and Su Qin were representative thinkers. This school focused on practical matters instead of any moral principle, so it stressed political and diplomatic tactics, and debate and lobbying skill. Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters and tacticians.
The Miscellaneous School (雜家/杂家; Zajia) integrated teachings from different schools; for instance, Lü Buwei found scholars from different schools to write a book called Lüshi Chunqiu (呂氏春秋) cooperatively. This school tried to integrate the merits of various schools and avoid their perceived flaws.
The School of "Minor-talks" (小說家/小说家; Xiaoshuojia) was not a unique school of thought. Indeed, all the thoughts which was discussed by and originated from non-famous people on the street were included into this school. At that time, there were some government officials responsible for collecting ideas from non-famous people on the street and report to their senior. This was where this school originated from. This also explains its Chinese name, which literally means "school of minor-talks".
Another group is the School of the Military (兵家; Bingjia) that studied warfare and strategy; Sunzi and Sun Bin were influential leaders. However, this school was not one of the "Ten Schools" defined by Hanshu.
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